Communications (Lesson 12)

• Standard call = who you're calling · who you are · where you are · what you want. Be brief; use phonetics.
• Towered: do/read back ATC instructions (hold-short, runway). Non-towered: self-announce on CTAF.
• Lost comms VFR: squawk 7600, watch for light-gun signals, land where safe.

ATC light-gun signals (Lesson 12)

• Steady green: in flight = cleared to land · ground = cleared for takeoff.
• Flashing green: in flight = return for landing · ground = cleared to taxi.
• Steady red: in flight = give way/circle · ground = stop.
• Flashing red: in flight = airport unsafe, don't land · ground = taxi clear of runway in use.
• Flashing white (ground): return to starting point. Alt. red/green: extreme caution.

Markings & signs (Lesson 12)

• Runway markings white; taxiway markings/signs yellow. Solid double-yellow = hold short.
• Signs: mandatory = red/white · location = black/yellow · direction = yellow/black.
• Heliport: TLOF (touchdown/lift-off) inside the FATO (final approach & takeoff area).

Traffic patterns & heliport ops (Lesson 13)

• Helicopter pattern is lower & tighter, terminates to a spot other than the active runway, often opposite the airplane direction.
• Pattern altitude commonly ~500–1,000 ft AGL (general) — no single number; look up the field in ForeFlight (Chart Supplement/sectional) for altitude, direction & frequencies.
• Be predictable, self-announce, scan continuously, avoid wake; brief a go-around before short final.
• At a heliport, plan each approach to the spot around wind/obstacles/downwash — no fixed geometry.